Fiber-based Raman amplifiers make use of stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) occurring in silica fibers. The following figure shows how a fiber can be used as a Raman amplifier in the forward-pumping configuration. The pump and signal beams at frequencies ωp and ωs are injected into the fiber through a fiber coupler. During the SRS process, a pump photon gives up its energy to create another photon of reduced energy at the signal frequency; the remaining energy is absorbed by the silica material in the form of molecular vibrations (optical phonons). The energy is transferred continuously fro the pump to the signal through SRS as the two beams co-propagate inside the fiber. The pump and signal beams counter-propagate in the backward-pumping configuration often used in practice.
A dispersion-compensating fiber (DCF) can be 8 times more efficient than a standard silica fiber (SMF) because of its smaller core diameter. The frequency dependence of the Raman gain is almost the same for the three kinds of fibers as evident from the normalized gain spectra shown in the right side figure above. The gain peaks for a Stokes shift of about 13.2 THz. The gain bandwidth Δνg is nearly 6 THz if we define it as the FWHM of the dominant peak in the figure above.
The large bandwidth of fiber Raman amplifiers makes them attractive for fiber-optic communication systems. However, a relatively large pump power is required to realize an amplification factor G > 20 dB. As an example, if we use G = exp(gL) by ignoring pump losses in the unsaturated region, gL ≈ 6.7 is required for G = 30 dB. By using the measured value of gR = 6 x 10-14 m/W at the gain peak near 1.55 μm with ap = 50 μm2, the required pump power is more than 5 W for a 1-km-long fiber. It can be reduced for longer fibers, but then fiber losses must be included.
Raman amplifiers are called lumped or distributed depending on their design. In the lumped case, a discrete device is made by spooling 1-2 km of a especially prepared fiber that has been doped with Ge or phosphorus for enhancing the Raman gain. The fiber is pumped at a wavelength near 1.45 μm for amplification of 1.55-μm signals. In the case of distributed Raman amplification, the same fiber that is used for signal transmission is also used for signal amplification. The pump light is often injected in the backward direction and provides gain over relatively long lengths (>50 km). The main drawback in both cases from the system standpoint is that high-power lasers are required for pumping. Early experiments often used a tunable color-center laser as a pump; such lasers are too bulky for system applications. For this reason, Raman amplifiers were rarely used during the 1990 when EDFAs became available. The situation changed around 2000 with the availability of compact high-power semiconductor lasers. Since then, both the discrete and distributed Raman amplifiers have been employed in designing lightwave systems.
Starting in 1998, the use of multiple pumps for Raman amplification was pursued for developing broadband optical amplifiers required for WDM lightwave systems operating in the 1.55-μm region. Dense WDM systems (100 or more channels) typically require optical amplifiers capable of providing uniform gain over a 70-80-nm wavelength range. In a simple approach, hybrid amplifiers made by combining erbium doping with Raman gain were used. In one implementation of this idea, nearly 80-nm bandwidth was realized by combining an EDFA with two Raman amplifiers, pumped simultaneously at three different wavelengths (1471, 1495, and 1503 nm) using four pump modules, each module launching more than 150 mW of power into the fiber. The combined gain of 30 dB was nearly uniform over the wavelength range of 1.53-1.61 μm.
Broadband amplification over 80 nm or more can also be realized by using a pure Raman-amplification scheme. In this case, a relatively long span (typically >5 km) of a fiber with a relatively narrow core [such as a dispersion-compensating fiber (DCF)] is pumped using multiple pump lasers. Alternatively, one can use the transmission fiber itself as the Raman-gain medium. In the latter scheme, the entire long-haul fiber link is divided into multiple segments (60 to 100 km long), each one pumped backward using a pump module consisting of multiple pump lasers. The Raman gain accumulated over the entire segment length compensates for fiber losses of that segment in a distributed manner.
The basic idea behind multi-pump Raman amplifiers makes use of the property that the Raman gain exists at any wavelength as long as the pump wavelength is suitably chosen. Thus, even though the gain spectrum for a single pump is not very wide and is flat only over a few nanometers (see figure below), it can be broadened and flattened considerably by using several pumps of different wavelengths.
Spontaneous Raman scattering adds to the amplified signal and appears as a noise because of random phases associated with all spontaneously generated photons. This noise mechanism is similar to the spontaneous emission that affects the performance of EDFAs except that, in the Raman case, it depends on the phonon population in the vibrational state, which in turn depends on temperature of the Raman amplifier.
The performance of modern Raman amplifiers is affected by several factors that need to be controlled. A few among them are double Rayleigh backscattering, pump-noise transfer, and polarization-mode dispersion. The last one has its origin in the polarization dependence of the Raman-gain coefficient gR in silica fibers. Its impact can be reduced in practice by employing the technique of polarization scrambling. In this technique, the pump polarization is changed randomly so that the signal experiences different local gain in different parts of the fiber, resulting effectively in an average gain that is independent of the signal polarization. The use of spun fibers for Raman amplifiers can also reduce the polarization impairments.
